Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. Noyalas, Jonathan A., et al. The Anabaptists eventually became one of the many Christian sects born of the Protestant Reformation and are the ancestors of the modern-day Amish, Brethren, and Mennonites, among others, who continue to practice many of the original Anabaptist tenets, including adult baptism and non-violence, the central issues Zwingli and his followers . However, some Anabaptists and General Baptists have improved their relations and sometimes have worked together.[86]. [61][62][63][e], Different types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Tobin Miller Shearer, The Deepest Dichotomy: How A Sixty-Five-Year-Old Essay on Racism Helped Me Learn A Lesson From Before I Was Born, Anabaptist Historians, September 8, 2016. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.[20]. Quite confident that they were living at the end of time, they expected the imminent return of Jesus Christ. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. The Anabaptists are a somewhat diverse group of religious movements tracing their origin, directly or indirectly, back to the radical reformers of the Swiss reformation that began in Zurich in the early 16th century, though they claim their beliefs and practices closely reflect those practiced by the earliest Christians and are taught in the New Testament. 6. Anabaptists are Christians who believe in adult baptism, as opposed to the baptizing of infants. woman has hands and feet amputated after covid vaccine. We hope that these readings offer entry points into deep, long-lasting movements that address racism and violence in Anabaptist communities and beyond. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. Melody Marie Pannell, A Radical Love in Harlem: Resolve, Resilience and Restoration (Part 1: 1952-1975), Anabaptist Historians, November 24, 2017. 10) Anabaptists, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. "[59] In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by 'faith alone', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience. "[59] Those who wish to tarry this path receive baptism after the New Birth. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Mnsterites, who occupied and held the German city of Mnster in 15341535, and the Batenburgers, who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements. 8) Interracial Alliances and the Problem of Tokenism. One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin[88] traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. Martyrs Mirror, by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. anabaptists and slavery. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Historians regard the episode at Mnster as an aberration of the Anabaptist movement. Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. "[58], Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians). This Confession constituted the core Anabaptist belief system. [40], Before Anabaptism proper was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. They also form part of the Protestants, and the group is estimated to have approximately four million followers today. The Anabaptists During the 1500s, fiery groups of Christians in continental Europe set Europe aflame with their quest to restore apostolic Christianity. In another work, Gottfried Seeba and Werner Packull showed the influence of Thomas Mntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. [citation needed], In 2018, there were 2.13 million baptized Anabaptists in 86 countries. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529. Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. This article begins a two-part series on Sabbatarians in 16 th century Germany. Also, Rebecca Janzens Liminal Sovereignty: Mennonites and Mormons in Mexican Culture is an important contribution to the discussion around race, imperialism, and settler colonialism. Under the influence of the reformer Bernhard Rothman, Anabaptist sentiment was strong enough there to elect an Anabaptist majority to the city council in 1533. Although questions were raised about the biblical validity of infant baptism in the early years of the Reformation, the movements first adult baptism took place at Zollikon, outside Zrich, probably on January 21, 1525. Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies, women feature more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of the martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts. He even talked of the expediency of reviving the persecution of Quakers and Anabaptists. 7) Ethnic Shibboleths and Racial Exclusion. In its first generation, converts submitted to a second baptism, which was a crime punishable by death under the legal codes of the time. They believe Christ was sent to earth to die for the sins of all people and that anyone who accepts Christ as his savior is saved from hell and can live forever in heaven. [24] In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. michael sandel justice course syllabus. We hope that this Anti-Racist Reading List will inspire fresh research into the subjects covered here as well as new areas like Anabaptism and policing. In 1527, Michael Sattler presided over a meeting at Schleitheim (in the Canton of Schaffhausen, on the Swiss-German border), where Anabaptist leaders drew up the Schleitheim Confession of Faith (doc. As well, the population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. anabaptists and slavery. Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas MntzerThomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stbner. 2 (2006): online. Their persecutors named them this, referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many call themselves "Radical Reformers". Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hbmaier, Marpeck). Anabaptists over the past five hundred years have been deeply entangled with racism and racial violence. They were committed to live in accordance with the spirit and the teachings of Jesus and the apostles. Mennonite belief comes from the Anabaptist movement during the Reformation. Early Swiss Anabaptists - David Y. Neufeld 3. For instance, Petr Chelick, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. We, the board of Anabaptist Historians, are enraged and heartbroken. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for their "low church, counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos" as well as for their focus on pacifism, social justice and poverty. "Possibilities of Erasmian Influence on Denck and Hubmaier in Their Views of Freedom of the Will. They held that infants and young children are not accountable for sin until they become aware of good and evil and can exercise their own free will, repent, and accept baptism. Within the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for charismatic manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the Holy Spirit, "prophetic processions" (at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535),[64] and speaking in tongues. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anabaptists, McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia - Anabaptists. why is my package stuck in germany February 16, 2022 Tobin Miller Shearer, Mennonites and the Magical African-American Friend, Anabaptist Historians, April 10, 2019. Several historians, including Thor Hall,[28] Kenneth Davis,[29] and Robert Kreider,[30] have also noted the influence of Humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Common Anabaptist beliefs and practices of the 16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society. For their teachings regarding baptism and for the apparent danger they posed to the political order, they were ubiquitously persecuted. Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. 13. Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. Blaming Jews and Bolsheviks for oppressing Mennonites, the paper condemned Western democracies for ignoring their plight. Anabaptists continue to teach that salvation makes us followers of Jesus Christ and that he is the model for the way we are to live. Research has shown that this view is undoubtedly erroneous. [2][3], Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach that "True faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God. This would lead to a division between the Schwertler (sword-bearing) and the Stbler (staff-bearing). At AMBS, our work in Anabaptist theological education is rooted in the saving power of the . Ben Goossen, Mennonite Genealogy and Racial Privilege, Anabaptist Historians, November 3, 2016. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists, and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. We see scholarship and education as elements of larger struggles against structural injustice that also include organizing, protests, voting, and other strategies for systemic change. And this involvement tends to lead to uncritical support for the Republican Party and various "wedge issues"most notably anti-abortion, pro-Israel, pro-death penalty, pro-militarism, and anti-homosexuality. In such cases, we recommend supporting local bookstores, ordering used copies, or you can submit a purchase or interlibrary loan request through your local library. [41], Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol, and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Thomas Mntzer. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must "distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists". The parents agonize when a son rejects his religious upbringing and joins the Union army. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Mnsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. Updates? Through a series of events, including a failed prophecy about Jesus' return, a small group of reformers would obey and teach . The similarities between Baptists and Anabaptists include baptism of believers only, religious freedom, and congregationalism. [7][8], Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity, as a whole, Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and the holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions."[9][10][11][12]. Mennonites entered Nazi consciousness in 1929, when 13,000 refugees descended on Moscow, clamoring to leave the Soviet Union. In Koons, Kenneth E., Hofstra, Warren R (Ed. Felipe Hinojosa, Freedom Dreams: On the Legacy of the Minority Ministries Council, Anabaptist Historians, April 24, 2017. In its first generation, followers participated in a second baptism, which was a violation condemned by death following the law of that era. KEY POINTS. Anabaptist-Black Interaction in Upper Canada: An Initial Reconnaissance The slaves of that era were predominately Caucasian. Corrections? [71][72] Within many of these traditions (Amish, Mennonite, Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren) are three subsets(1) Old Order Anabaptists (2) Conservative Anabaptists and (3) Mainline Anabaptists; for example, among Schwarzenau Brethren are the Old Order German Baptist Brethren (who use horse and buggy for transportation and do not use electricity), the Dunkard Brethren (who adhere to traditional theological beliefs and wear plain dress, but use modern conveniences), and the Church of the Brethren (who are largely a mainline group where members are indistinguishable in dress from the general population). From European imperial expansion and the Dutch slave trade to settler colonialism and displacement of native peoples, the origins and development of Anabaptist churches have been shaped and reformed in crucibles of injustice. Some of the more distinctive convictions of the Swiss movement were set forth in the seven articles of the Schleitheim Confession (1527), prepared under the leadership of Michael Sattler. The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs (Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability. George Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not Anabaptist. Journal of Mennonite Studies, 2013, Vol.31. ", "I part 1 Radical Reformation Dutch Sacramentists", "On the Theological Uses of Anabaptist History: A Conversation", "A Fire That Spread Anabaptist Beginnings", Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online, "Anabaptist Women as Martyrs, Models of Courage, and Tools of the Devil", "Church Community is a Gift of the Holy Spirit The Spirituality of the Bruderhof", "New Calvinists and Neo-Anabaptists: A Tale of Two Tribes", "The Baptist Church and its contributions to religion", "Do Baptists spring from Anabaptist seed? The brokenness of our wider society impedes efforts to fully grasp systemic injustice. [36], Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, he in turn baptized others at the meeting. And when he knelt down with such a request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work. The Council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Hall, Thor. Regina Shands Stoltzfus, The Unexpected and Complicated Presence of African American Women in Mennonite Churches (PhD diss., Chicago Theological Seminary, 2017). Free Black people and other antislavery northerners had begun helping enslaved people escape from southern plantations to the North via a loose network of safe houses as early as the 1780s. The Anabaptistic heresy was most influential Switzerland into Holland. Pilgram Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: "Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion God has a free hand even in these last days." (The two were related. Conservative Anabaptists such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, Conservative Mennonites and Beachy Amish have retained traditional religious practices and theology, while allowing for some modern conveniences and advanced technology. [37][38], Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of George Blaurock. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Since the red men have been exterminated by you white savages, I amuse myself by presiding at the persecutions of Quakers and Anabaptists; I am the great patron and prompter of slave-dealers and the grand-master of the Salem witches." A) Irving is praising the colonists for taking a stand against evil. [4][5][6] Though all Anabaptists share the same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life between them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish, the Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren. [42], Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Ulrich Zwingli was concerned that he brought the people and . ), After the Backcountry: Rural Life in the Great . ", Kreider, Robert. It was the result of the dissatisfaction of a group of Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwinglis followers, led by the patrician humanist Konrad Grebel, over Zwinglis unwillingness to undertake what they considered necessary reforms. [76], Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist due to their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. "[70], The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the Amish, Shwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Apostolic Christian Church, and Bruderhof. But others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. [69] The Swiss Anabaptist document titled "Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". The readings highlighted below share a common mission to bring about a more equal church and a more just future. Tobin Miller Shearer, Confronting the Confessional Catharsis: David A. Shank and the Legacy of Race Criminals, Anabaptist Historians, April 19, 2019. Omissions? 4) Anabaptists, Immigration, and Nativism. When Pennsylvania was founded in 1682, William Penn and others used their Quaker connections in Barbados to purchase enslaved Africans. Members of these churches believe the New Testament of the Bible takes precedence over the Old . Sattler was arrested and executed soon afterwards. They considered the public confession of sin and faith, sealed by adult baptism, to be the only proper baptism. If the story of Anabaptism is inextricably bound to race and racism, then the process of doing Anabaptist history must be understood as an anti-racist calling. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was beginning to die out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of Die Geschichte des Mnsterischen Aufruhrs (The History of the Mnster Uprising) in 1855. Known for his humility and tireless devotion to the education and uplift of the black population, this gentle Quaker was known as "the single most prolific antislavery writer and the most. . The origins of religious freedom in the United States are traced back to the Anabaptists. In the years following it, however, mainline Protestants and Catholics increased their persecution of Anabaptists throughout Europe without discriminating between the belligerent minority and the pacifist majority. Anabaptists. "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Felix Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. These connections, however, are highly debated by historians. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus.". Under the leadership of Mntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. Today Mennonites - named after Menno Simons (1496-1561), a former Roman Catholic priest who led an Anabaptist group in Holland - comprise more than 50 groups, ranging from Old Order to progressive. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly governments. The Anabaptists, like most Protestant reformers, were determined to restore the institutions and spirit of the primitive church and often identified their suffering with that of the martyrs of the first three Christian centuries. If it is true that the Anabaptists came out of the Peasants' Revolt of 1525, this event was linked to social upheaval and to the demand for social equality. The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion. "[67] The Hutterite Chronicle and the Martyrs Mirror record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: "this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". While Martin Luther was leading the Protestant reformation in Germany, a lesser known Reformed leader was leading a similar group in Zurich Switzerland. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. 1534 Strassburg decrees that Anabaptists must leave the city 1535 Charles V conquers Tunis and frees 20,000 Christian slaves 1538 Landgrave Philip of Hesse arranges debate between Anabaptists. Anabaptists trace their heritage to the Radical Reformation of the 16th century. Despite increasing persecution, new Anabaptist communities and teachings emerged under new leaders. Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. Germany has the most significant number amounting to almost 50% of the total. And his articles in Canadian Mennonite and Ontario Mennonite History. Thankfully, as they see it, they have come from the outside without the same historical, cultural, and ethnic baggage, and therefore can aid these historic Anabaptist groups in crossing cultures better, engaging in more contextualized and relevant ministry for today that will be more diverse and have a new face, than what was known prior. Insistence on a church without classes or divisions. Thanks to Rachel Waltner Goossen and Madeline J. Williams for providing comments. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Hngg, answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God."[34]. Members rejected the label Anabaptist, or Rebaptizer, for they repudiated their own baptism as infants as a blasphemous formality. The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith called the Schleitheim Confession.In 1527, Michael Sattler presided . Those who would deny it must be hardened men. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Anabaptist, (from Greek ana, "again") member of a fringe, or radical, movement of the Protestant Reformation and spiritual ancestor of modern Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers. [15], Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. [54][21] Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists.[55]. Jacob Hutter was instrumental in organizing these into what became known as the Hutterites. small cabin homes for sale in louisiana. [27] According to their polygenesis theory, South GermanAustrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism", Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed congregationalism", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman". The German Peasants' War - Roy L. Vice 4. Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. They denied the merit of infant baptism, however. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America. Soon civil magistrates took sterner measures, and most of the early Anabaptist leaders died in prison or were executed. Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22, James (Jacques) in Voltaire's novella Candide, Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Le prophte (1849), and the central character in the novel Q, by the collective known as "Luther Blissett". In Switzerland Anabaptists arose out of the humanistically oriented Reformation in Zrich in 1525; in south and central Germany and Austria, out of joint streams of medieval mysticism and apocalypticism (the expectation that the end of the world is imminent) in 1526; in the Netherlands, out of sacramentarianism . They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Melchior Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. | Baptist Press", "What's the Difference Between Anabaptists and Baptists? He groups Mntzer, Storch, et al. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. [73], Although many see the more well-known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed mainly of descendants of the European Anabaptists, while Mennonites come from diverse backgrounds, with only a minority being classed as ethnic Mennonites. The movements most distinctive tenet was adult baptism. [33] This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a number of "true church" movements.[c]. The vehemence and intransigence of the Anabaptist leaders and the revolutionary implications of their teaching led to their expulsion from one city after another. As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than the Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck's Vermanung of 1542 was deeply influenced by the Bekenntnisse of 1533 by Mnster theologian Bernhard Rothmann. 29). It is a fascinating page out of Sabbatarian history as these Sabbath keepers had no known connections to any pre-existing Sabbath group. 1. Tobin Miller Shearer, Money, Sex, and Power: The Black Manifesto and the Minority Ministries Council, Anabaptist Historians,April 13, 2017. Danang Kristiawan, The Faint Past and Constructed Identity: The Challenges of Historical Awareness in Javanese Mennonite Church, Anabaptist Historians, May 21, 2020. These Anabaptist congregations grew and prospered throughout the Roman Empire, even though they were almost universally persecuted by the Catholic Church. Austin McCabe Juhnke, Rethinking 606, the Mennonite National Anthem, Anabaptist Historians, November 28, 2017. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved". Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Conrad Grebel in Switzerland, Thomas Mntzer in central Germany, Pilgram Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia.
