(2001). Wong, K-C. , & Hallinger, P. Cranston, N. This paper aims to explore how the formation of Palestinian teachers' professional identity was affected by their experiences during the violent conflict known as the Second Intifada (2000-2005) and its impact on the school social culture. , & For example, the balance of time given to study of the legislation relevant to schooling or to the implications of a particular faith, whether Islam, Christianity, or any other, will embed values within the curriculum through the choice of priority reflected in the time allocated. , (Hargreaves 1995; Maslowski 2001, pp. Trond It involves consideration of fit to the culture of each individual school but also the necessity to equip leaders to engage with their own organizations culture, to sustain, develop or challenge it. R. & Prasad, P. Assessment is also increasingly against competences which are exported internationally (MacPherson et al., 2007). , & M. . C (Eds. The result is that most preparation and development takes egalitarian participation and transformational leadership as key (Bush & Jackson, 2002). (Eds. The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. M. Lumby with Coleman (2007) identifies the emotional dimensions of rage, confusion, and anxiety in engaging with alternate cultures (DiTomaso & Hooijberg, 1996; Osler, 2004; Prasad & Mills, 1997; Rusch, 2004). International Studies in Educational Administration, Thomas, D. C. The second is that cultural plurality is the norm in many educational systems and within most individual schools and colleges. (Ed.). In terms of cultural inputs it is important that leaders within a school have the skills and knowledge to read the cultural landscape of the school, to recognize those aspects of it which can be controlled or manipulated, and decide which should be influenced and in what ways. Journal of Educational Administration, 334(5), 1231. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. School principals in transition. ), The Life and Work of Teachers (pp. As a second exemplar, in China the millennia long influence of Confucianism has led to a compliance culture, the impact of this cultural norm being a tendency to see change as an event rather than a process (Hallinger, 2001, p. 67). Any research which attempts to map such differences in concept and practice will face severe methodological challenges. Preliminary explorations of indigenous perspectives of educational management, Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 5073. Dorfman Schein (1985, p.6) considers the basic essence of an organisation's culture to be: Bryant, M. (forthcoming). The recent emphasis has been on achieving standards through managing schools, teachers and the teaching process. Organisational Culture and Leadership. Hallinger (2001) notes the changing aims of Asian education and specifically the global standards applied to assessing the quality of education in Hong Kong. What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? , International Journal of Leadership In Education, 4(4),297307. This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. Bolam London: Paul Chapman. Adler, N. (2003). By continuing to use the site The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. Hoppe (2004) suggests that experiential learning proves enjoyable and effective for US leaders while French and German leaders often view this approach as time-wasting childs play (p. 353). Analysis of the content of programs might suggest that such commitment is largely camouflage for neglect of such values (Lopez, 2003; Rusch, 2004). As in the acquisition of any language, fluency can only be achieved by practice and not just by theory (Taras & Rowney, 2007). The values they espouse or eschew, the aspirations and achievements they have, and their contribution to communities (local, regional, national), whether positive or negative are the cultural product of the school. The focus on culture at the macro or societal level is matched by concern with the micro or organizational level, the school level. Leadership and Diversity; Challenging Theory and Practice in Education, Macpherson, R. Tuition is $13,400 for the highest grade offered. School culture and culture in general are often labeled as self-evident. However, his analysis of national culture has been abused to support stereotypical views and crude dichotomies, such as between Western cultures and those of Asia. The school leader is therefore at the fulcrum point, subject to exogenous effects of culture, refracted in part through his or her leadership development and personal cultural locus, and in turn engaging with endogenous culture in the school and its community. , Within this, however, there may exist several cultures: Stoll and Fink (1996)25 pupil culture, teacher cultures, a leadership culture, non-teaching staff culture, and parent culture. Systems theory enables us to conceptualize every school and educational organization as being characterized 1) by a range of inputs, 2) by the processes in operation within the school, and 3) by a set of outputs and in each of these three elements of the system we can identify culture as a key component. Each of the cultures influences and is influenced by each of the others. Head teachers in rural China: aspects of ambition. (2004). Tippeconic, J. & Similarly, the selection of teaching staff provides at least an implicit and possibly an explicit mechanism of shaping a key cultural input into the school. Leaders navigate cultural choices which are always constrained. (1986). . Introduction. Lopez, G. R. Cultures which are comfortable with hierarchy or with the co-creation of knowledge may find affinities with process modes. A second early example from the US of a description of a cultural type was the shopping mall school. Culture is shaped by five interwoven elements, each of which principals have the power to influence: Fundamental beliefs and assumptions, or the things that people at your school consider to be true. House Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. Tin, L. He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. Zhang, J. H. The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. We have looked at three theoretical aspects of culture here. every organization must have a person in charge, acute awareness of the expenditure of time, an obligation to accommodate others right to participate. Archer, M. (1998). M. Preparation and development programs therefore face a twofold challenge: In the next section we shall examine the issues of culture and leadership preparation and development. Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. The implications of these strategies for leadership training and development have been analyzed by DiPaola (2003) who outlines a number of key components of principal preparation programs. International Studies in Educational Administration, 29(2) 3037. Each of these contexts has a culture that expresses itself conceptually, verbally, behaviorally and visually, and which is a product of the complex interaction of communities, socio-economic contexts and contrasts, ethnic and faith-based values and beliefs, and the history of that community as a whole and of the individuals within it. However, a model which merely identifies cultural elements doesnt take account of the dynamic nature of culture and it is useful therefore to consider culture in the context of a systems perspective on organizations. Schools with strong, positive cultures feature service-oriented staffs, a collegial ambience, celebratory rituals, supportive social networks, and humor. In . C. D. These are the cultural, verbal, visual and behavioral components of the school in action through which a wide range of cultural messages and aims will be delivered. (1997). In Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. , Understanding international differences in culture would provide a basis for planning cultural fit in preparation and development programs. I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: London: Sage. It may be limiting, ineffective and ethically dubious, particularly in those countries with a history of previous colonization and suppression of indigenous cultures. E. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. The concept of culture has appeared frequently in analyses of both. Story Hallinger (2001, p. 65) suggests that the primary purpose of schooling is the onward transmission of established culture and values between generations. & The cacophony of objections highlights the failure of development programs to accommodate the diversity of culture within one geographic area as much as across widely distant locations. Accultured, automatic, emotional responses preclude awareness of internalized culture. Very many illustrations could be offered of the different expectations and practice of leadership throughout the world. & A tentative model and case study. (2006). Bush, T. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 2029. Who. & The dynamic culture of Dalin's(1995) typology of schools. We consider later in this chapter the implications of this for the professional development of lead-ers within educational institutions. What we mean by the term culture is both argued to be generally understood (Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming) and suggested not to be understood, misunderstood or so variously understood as to be verging on meaningless. At the exogenous level, there appears to be widespread cultural homogeneity implicit in leadership development; that is, whether explicitly acknowledged or not, development is underpinned by some degree of belief in leadership as an invariable activity (Walker & Walker, 1998; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997): this despite recognition that even the word leader has very different connotations in different cultures (House, 2004). Deciding which cultural assumptions to attempt to embed in the design and delivery of development, including the degree to which they will replicate or challenge dominant cultures; Deciding how best to equip leaders with intercultural competence, so that they in their turn can decide which cultural assumptions to attempt to embed in their school leadership, including the degree to which they will replicate or challenge dominant cultures. Sapre, P. Qiang, H. Panel 3. The (racially neutral) politics of education: a critical race Theory perspective. Challenging the boundaries of sameness: leadership through valuing difference. C. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, v6 n1 p23-46 1995 Explores the relevance of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement. A. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 14(1), 3035. The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. (1996). However, the findings which result from research in one location may lead to indiscriminate transfer of assumptions, such as the primary location of leadership in the principal. (1998). Hiltrop, J. There exists a considerable literature on culture, which provides a range of conceptualizations. as aberrations instead of being endemic to organizations (Hoyle & Wallace, 2005, p. 116). Journal of School Leadership, Coleman, M. Conference of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, Collard, J. (2007). School values were assessed by aggregating the scores of 862 students, (ages 15-19) in 32 Jewish and Arab Israeli schools (Study 1), and 1,541 students (ages 11-21) from 8 European schools and 163 teachers from 6 of these schools (Study 2), using Schwartz's Portrait Values Questionnaire. (1971). Salaman L. (2006). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. P.J. Bottery, M. For example, the East or the West continue to be used as descriptive terms for cultural groups in the context of considering leadership. The chapter aims to avoid becoming ensnared in the complexity of culture by confining its discussion to a sample of illustrative examples of both simple and complex conceptualizations. Mabey Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions. There are different typologies that can be used to assess. For example, being dynamic and dependable, encouraging and displaying integrity were agreed to be positive leader attributes across all the nations involved. Corporate rituals: The rites and fituals of corporate life. Paper presented to the London: Paul Chapman. , (forthcoming) provide a strong warning that collective cultures as well as honoring hierarchical superiority may also have an acute need to maintain self-esteem. Understanding Schools as Organisations (2004), Understanding valuation processes; exploring the linkage between motivation and action. The political perspective would see educational leaders as seeking to generate in their pupils and staff a critical view of society, to challenge existing orthodoxies and to become citizens able to participate in social and cultural change. Bajunid, I. Consequently, although there is relatively little empirical data on which to draw, the issue of fit between culture and the conception, development and enactment of leadership has become a key concern. If alternatively, culture is viewed as multiple, unstable, persistently contested, reflecting the differing perspectives and power of individuals and groups, changing the culture of a school is a different kind of endeavor. Secondly, it considers the important issue of the macro relationship of culture and globalization. Organizational change, leadership and learning: culture as cognitive process. Journal of School Leadership, 12(2), 693720. (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333), a set of shared values and preferred actions among members of a society that largely determines among other things, the boundaries within which leader development is possible. We must be aware that the spread of good practice internationally through the educational management literature, through the actions of international organisations such as UNESCO, and through the impact of professional development programmes, all of which are dominated by the perspectives of western educational management practitioners and academics, is in danger of presenting such a global picture of good practice. In crafting school culture, school leaders (principals, teachers, and parents) act as models, potters, poets, actors, and healers. Litvin (1997) attacks such essentialism, ascribing the taxonomy of groups to a Western Platonic purportedly scientific paradigm. School leaders work within pressing cultures which sustain themselves by multiple conscious and unconscious mechanisms (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). ), Strategic Human Resource Management (pp. School culture is the set of shared values, beliefs and norms that influence the way educators and administrators think, feel and behave in schoolplace. In Inevitably therefore, design of the curriculum and its delivery will involve judgments not only about the relevant local culture and the degree of diversity, but also how far global or international cultural assumptions may be relevant. The International Journal of Educational Management, 15(2), 6877. Cultural Influences on Leadership and Organizations: Project Globe. As Foskett and Lumby (2003, p. 8) indicate: Hargreaves, D. H. School culture, therefore, is most clearly "seen" in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus. , , Culture can take different forms. (Litvin, 1997, pp. Lumby, J. Hodgkinson (2001) argues that culture is always determining, subliminally and subconsciously, our value orientation and judgments. , & Similarly, Bajunid (1996, p. 56) argues that the richness of Islamic teaching is absent from concepts of leadership. The processes of cultural change in schools have been considered extensively in the literature (e.g. There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. His critique suggests that there is insufficient time given in such an approach to understanding existing cultures, both at a general level and in terms of the underpinning key components and variables, and the consequence is cultural imperialism. For most leaders this provides perhaps the most challenging dimension of leadership, for it is necessary to understand what those cultures are, why they exist and what aspects of them can or cannot, or should and should not, be subject to change to achieve the schools goals. The government of Thailand sought to introduce the western concept of school-based management, but found this problematic in the context of an existing societal culture, typical amongst the staff of Thai schools, in which deference to senior management and leadership made the introduction of collaborative and distributed approaches to leadership very difficult. (1991). Journal of Managerial Psychology, 1(2), 95117. ABSTRACT The relevance of the concept of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement is explored. (1996). P. There have, of course, been many more attempts to categorize school cultures, each offering a particular perspective to illuminate the nature and effects of culture. Fullan, M. Bell The first relates to the ways the day-to-day operations of the school interact with the outside world. Skip to page content. C. & , In relation to leader preparation and development culture has been framed largely as an issue of diffusion, particularly of Western values and practice applied to the development of leaders in all parts of the globe (Leithwood & Duke, 1998). (1998). Chinese culture and leadership. The capacity of any individual or group to engineer culture is questionable (Adler, 1997; Morgan, 1986). & Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), British Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 363386. eBook ISBN: 9780203872239 Adobe K. P. The design of curriculum and delivery is therefore to an extent a cultural guessing game requiring those responsible for preparation and development to hold a high level of cultural fluency themselves and to support the development of cultural fluency in others. International Studies in Educational Administration. For the purposes of this chapter, these two snapshots highlight issues that result from consideration of culture, such as who are the primary leaders and how might the leadership theory used in their development be shaped in response to differing ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions? A person in charge is not required. (2007). (2001). The product will be a mosaic of sub-cultures, which may reinforce the cultural objectives of the whole school or, in some cases, appear as counter cultures that challenge the organizational hegemony. After graduation, 76% of students from this school go on to attend a 4-year college. And, of course, the selection of principals by governors, education boards or regional/national education authorities is a key mechanism through which the cultural inputs to a school will be strongly controlled.
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